Political ecology | Student essays | No. 3 – The autonomy of Mexican maíz

Moderator’s Note: This is the third of a selection of
student research notes and essays prepared for a political ecology seminar I
taught during the just completed fall quarter (Sept-Dec.). The course involved serious
reading loads and weekly writings aimed at the development of analytical and
critical skills. All students prepared eight (8) critical reading summaries.
They also produced the essays and other contributions presented here which are
synthesized from quarter-long topical research projects and presented in the
form of a series of thematic posts related to the field of political ecology.

Some of the
posts are autobiographical and draw from personal life histories and experiences
but these are not empty exercises in navel gazing. Most of these students are
part of the so-called Millennial Generation and they seem to me more like critical
realists than alienated narcissists, and not because it is an intellectual fad
but as a matter of historical and structural circumstances. This is a group of
serious-minded, concerned young people who insist that they are going to be more
than the embodiment of an alienated apolitical multitude stymied by an increasingly
generalized state of precariousness. They refuse to be mere dupes in a tragedy
involving the most extreme social inequality and concentrated corporate abuse
of wealth and power that we have seen since the Gilded Age.

The third post
in the Autumn 2013 series was written, appropriately, by Gabriela Guillén
Valdovinos, who is the third of a group of Eastern Washington Chicana sisters
who have come to study at UW. Gabriela’s essay focuses on the growing movement
to protect Mexico’s rich heritage of heirloom maize (Zea mays) varieties. Mexico is one of the world’s major centers for
the original domestication of food crops including corn and indigenous farmers
are still stewards of this heritage as keepers of thousands of local land race
varieties and their regional wild relatives.

The genetic
integrity of these native varieties is threatened and the survival of the bioregional agroecosystems that produced such diversity is by no means any longer guaranteed –
NAFTA displaced at least 1 of every 3 corn farmers, many of them now farming or
farm working north of the border. Gabriela recounts the now familiar tale of the
arrival of transgenic technologies and the effects they wrought in the Mexican
countryside after NAFTA, which opened the floodgates to commodity imports that eventually included GMO corn.

This is a
timely report given the recent court
victory in Mexico that for now suspends new GMO corn plantings. This opens
the path to other areas of intensified activism including the rise and growing
development of a GMO-Free Corn Tortilla Campaign,
which will be a major focus of food sovereignty movements in Mexico and the
United States during 2014.

Semillas de Resistencia

Seeds of resistance

NATIVE MAÍZ IN MÉXICO, GM CORN, AND COMMUNITY RESISTANCE

Gabriela Guillén
Valdovinos | Seattle, WA | December 23, 2013

Our
body is constantly nurtured by the nutrients that emerge from the soils of this
earth, which holds the history of humankind and all living and nonliving
organisms. As we consume these nutrients we engulf the essence of being one
with the earth.

Current
power structures don’t recognize how place-based knowledge can promote our
livelihoods, and these institutions of power will do anything to maintain that
power by taking away valuable treasures from already marginalized and displaced
peoples. That is exactly what is happening in México with the contamination of
heirloom maíz (Zea mays L., or ‘corn’)
varieties that are being affected by the introgression of genetically modified
(GM) corn produced by the U.S.-based multinational biotechnology giant,
Monsanto (Quist and Chapela 541-42).

In
this report I will discuss the role of North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) in shaping the policies pertaining to GM (a.k.a. transgenic) corn. My
main objective is to inform individuals about the severity of risks that GM
corn poses to native varieties and communities. Most importantly I emphasize
the role of individuals in the power of collective action to foment resistance
to the future expansion and stability of capitalist globalization. I will highlight some of the
ways that persons can take in the form of actions to ensure they are receiving
healthy and nutritious food. It is the right of every individual to know what
is going into his or her body and this is precisely why GMOs are so daunting
because under the current USA regime you don’t know what is going into your
food.

Origin and diversity of Mexican land race corn

There
are some things that you can’t learn from a textbook and comes from the kind of
education you only get from knowledge that is passed down from generation to
generation through the oral tradition and apprenticing practices. The history
of maíz is engrained into every semilla
(seed). Each little kernel carries the rich identity of thousands of years of
domestication and crossbreeding. The near infinite diversity of the typical milpa corn patch helps us understand how
we get to the perfect grain that ensures soil fertility; resists pathogens and
pests; produces a great harvest; provides plenty of seed corn to preserve the
“memory of the plant” adapted to place; has all the gastronomical qualities
favored by local cuisines; and has all the medical and spiritual values
preferred by local healers. You can see that corn is more than food; it is a
complex living entity interwoven with our cultura,
que cura.

The
origin of corn can be traced back thousands of years to, among other places, southern
and central México. Evidence suggests that the first cultivation of Zea mays L. occurred in what are now the Mexican
States of Puebla, México, and Oaxaca (Bauer-Panskus
2010, 17). One recent study, based on maize cobs from the Guilá Naquitz
Cave in Oaxaca, produced dates of 5,400 carbon or 14 years before the present –
approximately, 6,250 calendar years ago), making those cobs the oldest in the
Americas (Piperno and
Flannery 2001).

The
biodiversity of corn is immense in México, with several hundred distinct maize family
varieties and many localized landraces. All derive from teosinte, a wild grass
species (Bauer-Panskus, 17).  The
range in color, size, taste, resistance worms or rust, tolerance to dry or hot
or cold weather, etc indicates the biodiversity.

The
beauty of it all is that the maize genome as a whole is quite adaptive and
yet  very stable once a local
variety is established with subsequent high levels of inbreeding. According to
Professor Peña, corn genetics has been manipulated through conventional
morphological or marker-assisted breeding (MAB) to produce the wide range of
varieties that exist today. Each variety is bred under cultural and
environmental conditions that are specific to each local agroecosystem leading
to adaptation to context; this can occur within just a couple of generations
and is  indicative of the
plasticity and mutability of the genome. As Professor Devon Peña’s grandmother
told him, “The seed is the memory of the plant of how to live well in this
place”. Through the domestication of corn, indigenous farmers were able to
breed distinct varieties that could be used in various ways and adapted to a
wide range of ecological contexts.

In
México, maíz remains the most widely cultivated crop and a staple of traditional
diets in both rural and urban settings (Fitting 2010,
17). Maíz can be used in myriad ways including sourcing the cuisine and
ceremonial uses; feeding livestock; producing green manure and other products
like huitlacoche (a.k.a. cuitlacoche), silk bundles, and even
corn oil (Moreno-Calles et al 2012). The connection that traditional people
have to corn derives from the food ways but also the knowledge passed along by
their ancestors. Many western ideologies tend to discredit the Traditional
Environmental Knowledge of native peoples. This disregard seeks to erase the “people’s
ecology”  and replace it with
western scientific methods, which does not acknowledge any type of indigenous
epistemology.

Western
research is based on a particular set of methods of science, which in some ways
can be beneficial but in other ways serve to discredit those who have passed
knowledge down across the generations, usually on the  basis of a place-based phenomenological experience acquired
by living in an area for a long periods of time. The erasure and discrediting
of local place-based knowledge has the effect of reinforcing racial hierarchies
and the segregation of traditional native sectors of society. Colonization rips
apart much of the culture of indigenous populations, but the knowledge of corn survived
this attack in México. Little did we know that corn would be under attack due
to the consequences of free trade agreements and the arrival of transgenic corn
from the United States.

NAFTA and the political ecology of corn

When
NAFTA was implemented in
1994, Presidents Bill Clinton and Carlos Salinas de Gortari promised it would
lead to the creation of millions of jobs, new high technology industrial
centers, and the encouragement of social mobility from rural villages to urban
centers, where more social services would be readily available (Bollier 2010).
This new trade agreement actually opened the door to neoliberal policies that
allowed transnational capitalism to further extend its presence and control and
many Mexican citizens were affected by the search for “cheap” labor, minerals,
and materials across borders.

Because
NAFTA, eliminated tariffs on corn imported from the United States, American
corn quickly destabilized local markets, driving an estimated 500,00 farmers
off the land each year (Bollier 2010). What this means was that subsidized corn
from the United States is actually cheaper than Mexican corn. The subsidized US
corn sold internationally was making locally grown corn economically
unsustainable. This forced individuals to either migrate north as economic
refugees (“illegally”) or live in impoverished conditions trying to find the
means to feed themselves. It is more astonishing to find genetically modified
corn from the US is threatening the integrity of maíz, which has been
cultivated and grown by Mexicans for thousands of years. (Malkin 2005)

With
the implementation of NAFTA there was an increase in corn importations from the
USA and by 2000 “Mexico was the second largest importer of US corn. At the
time, Bt corn comprised 20 percent of all corn grown in the United States. Bt
corn is a transgenic variety with genes from soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, which produces
insecticide toxins that kill the European and Southwestern corn borers”
(Fitting, 19).

With
the increase of importation of US corn, Zapotec farmers in Oaxaca began to
detect what they believed was “mutant plants” in their fields; a later study
conducted by the University of Berkeley found the presence of transgenic maíz
in southeast México, causing great surprise because at the time there were only
small-scale trials of transgenic corn in México (Quist and Chapela 2001;
Bauer-Panskus et al. 2010).

Later,
a NAFTA commission concluded that the responsibility for the introgression of
transgenic corn was due to imports from the US. The way this occurred was that
US corn made it into Mexico as a food aid that was not labeled as having grains
of genetically modified corn. Every kernel of corn is a seed that can be grown
and many people that live in rural areas buy corn at their local markets and
eat most of it, but plant some of the seeds as well. “According to this theory,
maize imported from the US was used as seed by Mexican farmers and thus found
its way into traditional seed systems, which are based on seed exchange
(Bauer-Panskus 2010, 14ff).

Zapatista corn

Once
the seeds were planted they were able to breed with the native species thus
creating a hybrid species that was able to produce seeds at a faster rate than teosinte. One may ask, what is the big
problem this is just allowing for production to be more efficient by producing
goods at a faster rate? But that is the problem exactly; GMO’s are taking the
place of natural systems of production thus feeding the capitalist systems that
for hundreds of years have oppressed marginalized communities. Maíz is one of
the only things that native peoples of México have left, if you take that away
you are essentially taking a vital part of their identity and replacing it with
a modified form for
neo-liberal gain.

“Every single
independent study conducted on the impact of genetically modified food shows
that it damages organs, it causes infertility, it causes immune system failure,
it causes holes in the GI tract, it causes multiple organ system failure”
(Null, 2013). There are many health risks that GMO’s can cause to natural bodily
systems, and that is why so many countries have banned GM foods. One of the
biggest fears of GM corn in México is that it will displace native species of
corn if it becomes widely used in an area and potentially contaminate other
species due to natural pollination processes. “However, the potential risks of
GM varieties also include the development or intensification of weeds tolerant
to herbicides, and pests resistant to transgenic plants” (Fitting, 19). If the
weeds and pest become tolerant to these systems the native will not thrive. The
native heirloom varieties will not be able to survive because they won’t be as
fit to the environment as transgenic varieties due to their genetic
modifications.

But transgenic
corn isn’t just affecting biodiversity of maíz, because this small change
causes a chain reaction that also puts agriculture, indigenous knowledge, and
cuisine at risk as well. Opponents of GM foods believe that biotechnology
companies such as Monsanto are trying to play the role of God by trying to
engineer organisms to grow at a faster rate, bigger, in more extreme and harsh
conditions thus making a more “fit” organism.

The fact of
the matter is that these changes don’t necessarily benefit all of society,
these systems of feed the capitalist ideologies that will do anything to
produce the most goods in the least amount of time, without thinking of the
consequences that genetically engineered organisms cause. Genetic engineering
is actually creating mutant organisms that introduce uncertainties that harm
organisms and the environment or life support systems as well.

Natural
systems and processes work in very distinct and unique ways, and once we modify
or alter any part of those systems the effects of those changes will ripple and
affect other natural cycles, which affect our livelihood in this world. A
simple change can lead to complex consequences that can affect all forms of
living and non-living organisms whether in a positive or negative way. The fear
of losing a vital parts of their identity is what caused hundreds of people to
organize to stop transgenic corn from entering and harming the native maíz varieties
of México.

When evidence
of GM corn was found in México there was a public outcry to ban transgenic corn
to uphold the integrity of Mexican maíz. There was formation of a coalition
named En defensa del maíz (In defense
of maize) which consisted of peasant groups, academics, scientist,
environmental NGO’s, and indigenous rights groups which focused around the
question of corn and all that corn symbolizes.

Elizabeth
Fitting states, “the Mexican anti-GM corn campaign has enrolled a broad
spectrum of anti-GM focused organizations by portraying maize as a symbol of
Mexican culture now under attack by neo-liberalist, corporate-led
globalization” (Fitting, 17-20). 

In 1998,
Mexico banned the planting of genetically engineered corn, to protect the
agricultural heritage of maize. But this didn’t stop GM corn from entering the
country, because corn from the US was still being imported. When the GM
campaign brought their concerns to the table, they faced opposition from
individuals that minimized farmers and non-scientist expertise and concerns
about maíz due to their lack of 
“scientific” evidence. Yet again we see how place-based knowledge is
discredited as a valid form of information.

But who is to
say that intergenerational knowledge isn’t valuable enough to be considered
“expertise”? The rich place-based knowledge that many indigenous individuals
hold about cultivating and surviving in and area has been passed down for
thousands of years. All knowledge doesn’t have to be learned in a manner that
conforms to western ways of thinking and learning, some of the richest
knowledge we have comes from those that lived before us.

Before there
was science people were still adapting and surviving in the areas which they
occupied which gives them the power to understand and have expert opinions
about their surroundings. Indigenous people of México acknowledge that they
hold this power and they understand the issues that can arise if GE corn is in
contact with native species (after all they are people of corn), and that is
why this decade long battle against transgenic corn has continued to thrive in
México.

Other
movements such as the Sin Maíz no Hay País and other
collective action groups have contributed to the success of keeping transgenic
corn out of the Mexican countryside. The
organization known as “Collective Action” in México led a lawsuit in July 2013, which resulted in a
temporary ban on the planting of GM corn. This basically means the government
must refrain from granting permits to private corporations or NGO entities to
release genetically modified corn to the environment and suspends permits for
experimental and commercial planting of genetically modified maíz in México.

This precautionary measure suspends the
release of genetically modified maíz within Mexican boundaries until the
collective action lawsuit is settled on appeal (San Vincente Tello, 2013). But
since then the collective has been informed that the Federal Government has
appealed the measure due to lack of judicial foundations. But the resistance
doesn’t stop there, because when the Mexican countryside, farmers, indigenous
people and the integrity of maíz are in danger, collective action and
resistance will persist. In order to move forward with the ban of GM corn there
will have to be enough social pressure to cause judicial actions which would
protect the rich history of maíz and its ancestors.

There
are so many injustices in various sectors of society throughout the world that
cause hunger, poverty and environmental degradation. Marginalized individuals
such as indigenous peoples are the ones that are more susceptible to these
issues, on top of the daily struggles brought about by socio-economic status,
race, class, gender, sexuality etc. Indigenous individuals and lower class
people are the ones that suffer more when it comes to proper nutrition, but
there are ways to prevent and ensure that people can be self-reliant. The world
can be free of hunger if farmers and communities take back control of the food
systems presently dominated by transnational agri-foods industries. The
engagement of people within the community both informs and amplifies their
voices.

We must think locally,
regionally, and globally when reclaiming traditional food ways. As Devon Peña
states, “it would be more realistic for the movements to redirect themselves
and their claims to civil society…and build or rebuild alterNative systems that
challenge corporate models and focus on mutual aid for local, place-based and
non-hierarchal farming systems” (Peña, 5). Food sovereignty allows people to
govern their own food because people should have the right to healthy and
culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable
methods, as well as the right to define their own food and agriculture systems.

We must learn
how to take back or food sources so they can be consistent with our cultural
identities and communities, because these are the things that promote
self-reliance and mutual aid, things that have been in indigenous communities
way before colonization occurred. As explained
by Peña during a lecture on the ecologies of chaos: To be shameless (to be a sinvergüenzas) is considered a bad thing
because it shows you have no remorse upon harming nature or others for the sake
of greater individual gain. When a person is shameless they are separated from
both nature and the community, which in turn leads to immoral conduct affecting
many in negative ways.

Maíz has long been a vital part of Mexican identity due to its rich
history of domestication in México. Many indigenous people value corn not for
the goods it provides but instead it for the spiritual connection that it has
with ancestor and traditional ways of knowledge. In order to overturn this new
form of colonization through GM corn entering the countryside of México we must
take matters into our own hands to ensure native species are preserved and managed
in a culturally acceptable manner to allow future and present generations to
benefit from the resources that maíz provides on a daily basis.

Someone once said, “El que siembra en tierra
ajena…hasta la semilla pierde” (He who sows on another’s land, loses everything,
even the seed). GMOs invert this saying because, in a sense, when patented
transgenic corn is planted, the farmer is losing the purity of thousand of
years of breeding and careful cultivation, thus taking away the history of a
precious plant long guarded and nurtured by native farmers for the benefit of
all humanity.

Sources

Bauer-Panskus,
A., S. Hamberger, and C. Then 2013. Transgene escape: Global atlas of
uncontrolled spread of genetically engineered plants. Munich: Institute for Independent
Impact Assessment in Biotechnology. URL: http://www.testbiotech.org/sites/default/files/Testbiotech_Transgene_Escape.pdf.

Bollier, D. 2010. NAFTA, Mexican
Corn and the Commons: How American industrial agriculture threatens Mexican
biodiversity and social stability. URL at:

http://onthecommons.org/nafta-mexican-corn-and-commons#sthash.vn8F7fIw.dpuf.

Fitting, E. 2010. The Struggle for Maize: Campesinos, Workers,
and Transgenic Corn in the Mexican Countryside Durham: Duke Univ. Press.

Malkin, E. 2005. Discovering
transgenic corn, Mexicans suspicious of U.S. New York Times (March 28). URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/27/health/27iht-corn.html?pagewanted=all.

Moreno-Calles,
Anna, A. Casas, E. García-Frapolli, and I. Torres- García  2012. Traditional agroforestry systems
of multi-crop ‘‘milpa’’ and ‘‘chichipera’’ cactus forest in the arid Tehuaca´n
Valley, Mexico: their management and role in people’s subsistence. Agroeforestry Systems 84: 207-226.

Peña, D. G.  2013. Lectures. ANTH/ENVIR 459: Culture, Ecology, Politics. Department of
Anthropology, University of Washington 
(September-December).

Piperno,
D. R. and K. V. Flannery. 2001. The earliest archaeological maize (Zea mays L.)
from highland Mexico: New accelerator mass spectrometry dates and their
implications. PNAS 98: 4: 2101–2103.
URL: http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4/2101.short.

Quist, J. and I. Chapela
2001. Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca,
Mexico. Nature 414: 541-543 (29
November 2001)

San Vicente Tello, A. and René
S. Galindo 2013. Mexico stops GM maize with collective action. Environmental
and Food Justice Blog. URL: http://ejfood.blogspot.com/2013/11/geo-watch-mexican-activists-explain-ban.html.